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Rapidly expanding human populations and associated economic growth and overconsumption is resulting in serious degradation of the natural environment human survival depends on (Vitousek et al., 1997; Sanderson et al., 2002; Orr, 2004; Alroy, 2010; Branch et al., 2013). Almost half of the global human population currently lives within 150km of the coast (UN Atlas of the Oceans, 2014). This results in severe pressures being placed on marine and coastal environments. Anthropogenic impacts on oceans include physical alterations of the coasts and seafloor, as well as chemical and biological contamination through sewage, industrial wastes and agricultural discharges, dredging, desalination, shipping, and fossil fuel and ore extraction. These pressures, together with overfishing, by-catch, destructive fishing methods (e.g. blast fishing), introduction of invasive species, boat strikes, acoustic pollution, climate-related changes (i.e. ocean acidification, sea level rise, freshwater inundations, cyclones) can cause structural changes in marine communities and the loss of genetic variability and other side-effects of human interference with exceptionally complex ocean ecosystems (Gray et al., 1979; Goldberg, 1995; Vitousek et al. 1997; Islam and Tanaka, 2004; Pauly et al., 2005; Panigada et al., 2006; Crain et al., 2008; Halpern et al., 2008; Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011)

Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as clean air, fresh water, and the pollination of crops. The aim of this literature review was to find empirical data illustrating the ways in which conservation land and conservation management activities affect ecosystem services. The widely-held belief that natural ecosystems—such as those found on conservation land in New Zealand—provide a range of ecosystem services is generally supported by the literature. International studies show that natural vegetation can decrease air pollution, regulate local air temperatures, improve water quality, reduce shallow soil erosion, and retain natural nutrient cycles. It can also be beneficial for pest control and pollination on agricultural land. Wetlands can improve water quality and can play a role in drought and flood mitigation. Seagrasses, saltmarsh vegetation, and mangroves can reduce the height and force of waves and play a role in flood protection. In addition, maintaining biodiversity preserves genetic libraries and future options for discoveries of valuable biological compounds. The few studies investigating the effects of conservation management activities on ecosystem services indicate that restoring vegetation can improve water quality and water storage functions, can reverse soil degradation on a local scale, and can restore plant-insect interactions. Additionally, removing some invasive plant species can increase water yield. Unfortunately, very few studies of ecosystem services have been conducted in New Zealand to date, and only some of the international results are likely to be applicable under New Zealand conditions. Accordingly, while conservation is probably beneficial for a range of ecosystem services in New Zealand, the scarcity of local data makes it difficult to ascertain where and when, and to what extent, the majority of those benefits transpire. Keywords: ecosystem services, air, climate, water, soil, pest control, disease regulation, pollination, natural hazard protection, nutrient cycling, fish stocks, biodiversity, conservation management, natural habitat, restoration.