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In the literature review, a human rights-based approach is defined as 'one that reflects the relevant standards for all these rights, procedurally and substantively, as well as the applicable duties to States'. A human rights-based approach to waste, by definition, to be respected, protected and fulfilled for everyone on the islands. However, under a rights-based approach, those more vulnerable, at risk and impacted, require greater protection and analysis of their condition by the State (and by businesses, if applicable, through legislation).

Rapidly expanding human populations and associated economic growth and overconsumption is resulting in serious degradation of the natural environment human survival depends on (Vitousek et al., 1997; Sanderson et al., 2002; Orr, 2004; Alroy, 2010; Branch et al., 2013). Almost half of the global human population currently lives within 150km of the coast (UN Atlas of the Oceans, 2014). This results in severe pressures being placed on marine and coastal environments. Anthropogenic impacts on oceans include physical alterations of the coasts and seafloor, as well as chemical and biological contamination through sewage, industrial wastes and agricultural discharges, dredging, desalination, shipping, and fossil fuel and ore extraction. These pressures, together with overfishing, by-catch, destructive fishing methods (e.g. blast fishing), introduction of invasive species, boat strikes, acoustic pollution, climate-related changes (i.e. ocean acidification, sea level rise, freshwater inundations, cyclones) can cause structural changes in marine communities and the loss of genetic variability and other side-effects of human interference with exceptionally complex ocean ecosystems (Gray et al., 1979; Goldberg, 1995; Vitousek et al. 1997; Islam and Tanaka, 2004; Pauly et al., 2005; Panigada et al., 2006; Crain et al., 2008; Halpern et al., 2008; Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011)

Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as clean air, fresh water, and the pollination of crops. The aim of this literature review was to find empirical data illustrating the ways in which conservation land and conservation management activities affect ecosystem services. The widely-held belief that natural ecosystems—such as those found on conservation land in New Zealand—provide a range of ecosystem services is generally supported by the literature. International studies show that natural vegetation can decrease air pollution, regulate local air temperatures, improve water quality, reduce shallow soil erosion, and retain natural nutrient cycles. It can also be beneficial for pest control and pollination on agricultural land. Wetlands can improve water quality and can play a role in drought and flood mitigation. Seagrasses, saltmarsh vegetation, and mangroves can reduce the height and force of waves and play a role in flood protection. In addition, maintaining biodiversity preserves genetic libraries and future options for discoveries of valuable biological compounds. The few studies investigating the effects of conservation management activities on ecosystem services indicate that restoring vegetation can improve water quality and water storage functions, can reverse soil degradation on a local scale, and can restore plant-insect interactions. Additionally, removing some invasive plant species can increase water yield. Unfortunately, very few studies of ecosystem services have been conducted in New Zealand to date, and only some of the international results are likely to be applicable under New Zealand conditions. Accordingly, while conservation is probably beneficial for a range of ecosystem services in New Zealand, the scarcity of local data makes it difficult to ascertain where and when, and to what extent, the majority of those benefits transpire. Keywords: ecosystem services, air, climate, water, soil, pest control, disease regulation, pollination, natural hazard protection, nutrient cycling, fish stocks, biodiversity, conservation management, natural habitat, restoration.

The objective of this Pacific Ocean synthesis is to comprehensively and systematically survey the published scientific literature, government publications and other peer-reviewed reports to identify Pacific Ocean and regional threats as well as the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of those threats. In addition, the report highlights select regional and Pacific Ocean solutions presented by the literature. This report summarizes and distills the scientific literature and highlights common trends in and around the Pacific Ocean regarding threats, impacts and solutions through the review of more than 3400 scientific articles and reports. It also reveals gaps in knowledge and areas where more natural and social science research is needed that could inform coastal and ocean policy and management. For this analysis, the Pacific Ocean was organized into seven regions representing 50 countries or territories. Results from this synthesis were vetted and verified by over 30 natural, physical, and social scientists from around the Pacific who convened in Honolulu, Hawaii in August 2008 (Appendix A). The meeting, which used the synthesis as the foundation for discussion, resulted in the creation of the document, “Ecosystems and People of the Pacific Ocean—Threats and Opportunities for Action: A Consensus Statement.” This statement, which has been signed by more than 375 scientists, identifies and prioritizes key threats to the health and productivity of the Pacific Ocean, many accelerated by global climate change, for which broad consensus exists in the scientific community. It also highlights the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of these threats and outlines a “road map” that identifies available solutions for these threats.

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic there is heightened public interest in the risk factors that lead to such events. The commercial wildlife tradeand associated commercial wildlife markets for human consumption have been widely recognized as a major risk factor, and arethe subject of a WCS policy brief focused specifically on that topic1. The currentreport looks at the broader issues of ecosystem integrity and ecosystem degradation. The degradation of ecosystems is often linked to the commercial wildlife trade but also results in various other processes that affect zoonotic disease transmission.