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Massive coral bleaching episodes have impacted the function of the reefs and increased rates of mortality. Coral reefs support over one million plant and animal species and their economic value is pro¬jected to more than US $ 30 billion annually. Extreme climatic con¬ditions, however, are most likely to increase in the future with cur¬rent climate scenarios. Projected increases in carbon dioxide and temperature exceed the conditions under which coral reefs have flourished over the past 500 000 years. Coral reefs are crucial bio¬diversity hotspots and support both coastal fisheries and tourism in many regions. Coral reefs, however, are in decline in many regions as a result of numerous pressures, including, but not limited to, extreme climate events, unsustainable fishing practices, diseases, sedimentation, and discharge of untreated sewage. Increasing re¬silience and securing rapid recovery of coral reefs will be essen¬tial for the ability of these ecosystems to support coastal fisheries and coastal livelihoods and cultures in the future. However, this resilience and recovery may be seriously impounded by unsustain¬able coastal infrastructure development and marine pollution from land-based sources. At the current rate of growth, coastal develop¬ment may impact up to 90% of the tropical and temperate coast¬lines by 2032 if development continues unchecked. While progress has been made to reduce the discharge and impacts of oil spills and persistent organic pollutants (POP’s), there now needs to be a focus on the largest current threats to the coastal marine environment : untreated sewage and piecemeal coastal development.

The Cook Islands energy sector relies 100 % on imported fuels for transport, electricity generation and household use. In the year 2005 the world has experienced a period of price volatility for petroleum that saw petroleum prices increase from US$ 40/bbl in mid March to US$ 70bbl in September. At present wind energy is considered to be the most attractive renewable energy source for grid connected electricity supply in the Cook Islands. For the Rarotonga system, wind energy penetration up to a maximum of 30% seems to be manageable without jeopardizing system stability and security. The significant benefits of such a project include the displacement of diesel power generation and consequent fuel and other operating savings, which are quantifiable, and the diversification of energy sources for power generation in Rarotonga and increased security of supply from a reduced dependence on foreign supplies of fuel.

As noted in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, climate change is one of the most important drivers of biodiversity loss" and is projected to further adversely affect the role of biodiversity as a source of goods and services. The impacts of climate change on biodiversity have been of major concern to the Convention on Biological Diversity since 2002 when, following a request from the Conference of the Parties and the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA), an Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group was established to carry out an assessment of the interlinkages between biodiversity and climate change. The report was completed in 2003 and focused primarily on the impacts of climate change mitigation options on biodiversity, and the links between them, in the context of the Kyoto Protocol.

This thesis applies an approach of political ecology to analyze environmental change in the Cook Islands in the context of the fiscal crisis of the state in the 1990's. Questions and methods from both human and physical geography are brought to the empirical case. Corruption and financial management surrounding a hotel development on Rarotonga, Cook Islands presents a case of "criminal ecology" This research finds that the Pacific Island state is characterised by thin layers of bureaucracy making it extremely vulnerable to international crime, national debt and environmental change. Structural adjustment placed further pressure on the Cook Islands environment. The significance of this research lies in its illumination of the widening environmental consequences of misguided development and debt.

The Cook Islands is a unique small island developing state in the Pacific. It is an independent island nation comprising 15 islands, which cover a total land area of 240 sq. km and are scattered across an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2 million sq. km. In 1965, the Cook Islands exercised its right to self-determination and entered into a relationship of free association with New Zealand.

In 1989, the kakerori (Pomarea dimidiata) was one of the ten rarest bird species in the world, with a declining population of just 29 birds living in south-eastern Rarotonga. As a result of conservation management, the kakerori population has rebounded, with a minimum of 281 birds on Rarotonga and 19 birds on Atiu in summer 2004/05. Since 2001, the emphasis of management in the Takitumu Conservation Area (TCA) on Rarotonga has shifted from the ‘recovery’ of kakerori to ‘sustaining’ the population at 250–300 individuals. In 2004/05, all rat bait stations were filled fortnightly, and so the labour costs were reduced by 30% to 34 person days, and toxin use (57 kg of Talon®—active ingredient brodifacoum) was reduced 81% from the peak year during the ‘recovery phase’. Kakerori breeding productivity was unusually high in 2004/05 because several pairs raised two broods. In the poisoned area, apparent breeding success was significantly higher (1.35 fledglings/breeding territory) than in the unpoisoned area (0.55 fledglings/ breeding territory); however, this difference was at least partly due to more effort being spent searching for fledglings in poisoned areas. A minimum of 59 fledglings was detected in 2004/05; however, some territories were not checked during the breeding season, and then a series of five tropical cyclones struck Rarotonga in a 4-week period in February/March 2005, which halted our fledgling searches, and caused severe damage to some habitat in the TCA. We expect that many kakerori perished during these cyclones; however, the population on Atiu, which was only affected by two of the five cyclones, survived unscathed. These catastrophic weather events highlighted the vulnerability of single-island endemic birds, and underlined the value of establishing an ‘insurance’ population on Atiu. We recommend that the poisoning regime should return to that used during the ‘recovery phase’ of the kakerori management programme if the August 2005 census reveals that the population has fallen below 220 birds (a 20% decline), otherwise the recent programme of fortnightly poisoning should continue.

As part of the AusAID-sponsored South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project ("Pacific Project") for the FORUM region, in response to concerns raised by its member countries over the potential impacts of an enhanced Greenhouse Effect on climate and sea levels in the South Pacific region, a SEAFRAME (Sea Level Fine Resolution Acoustic Measuring Equipment) gauge was installed at Avatiu Harbour, Rarotonga, Cook Islands, in February, 1993. The gauge has been returning high resolution, good scientific quality data since installation.

During the 1995 national crisis and subsequent economic reform programme (ERP), several national consultation forums saw key policy measures and economic structural changes introduced. These had considerable influence on current national sustainable development initiatives including the draft NSDP and NESAF. Drastic measures were adopted, including introduction of new key legislations such as PERCA Act, MFEM Act, PSC Act to support the ERP, prudent fiscal policies, downsizing of the public service, changes in taxation regimes, establishment of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs), privatization of key government assets and a private sector-led economy.

The watersheds of the Cook Islands provide residents and visitors with a wide range of environmental services such as drinking water supplies, natural filtration of freshwater runoff, recreational opportunities and scenery. While important, the value of these services is not readily apparent in economic terms. This means they can easily be overlooked in decision making and policy formulation. There is a pressing need to better understand the economic value of the nation's watersheds to raise awareness and inform investment and regulatory decisions.

Solid waste management strategy for the Pacific