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The International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and Natural Justice collaborated during 2013–14 with a group of lawyers and experts on the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities to clarify the following issues:| Which conservation actors have responsibility for upholding international human rights standards?| Which international human rights standards are most relevant in a conservation context?| Which redress mechanisms are available to indigenous peoples and local communities when human rights are infringed by conservation initiatives? We determined that, while states are traditionally seen as the primary duty bearers under international law, human rights norms are increasingly considered to apply to non-state entities. This supports our conclusion that international organisations, nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) and philanthropic foundations have human rights responsibilities under international law.