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Assessing species' vulnerability to climate change is a prerequisite for developing effective strategies to conserve them. The last three decades have seen exponential growth in the number of studies evaluating how, how much, why, when, and where species will be impacted by climate change. We provide an overview of the rapidly developing field of climate change vulnerability assessment (CCVA) and describe key concepts, terms, steps and considerations. We stress the importance of identifying the full range of pressures, impacts and their associated mechanisms that species face and using this as a basis for selecting the appropriate assessment approaches for quantifying vulnerability. We outline four CCVA assessment approaches, namely trait?based, correlative, mechanistic and combined approaches and discuss their use. Since any assessment can deliver unreliable or even misleading results when incorrect data and parameters are applied, we discuss finding, selecting, and applying input data and provide examples of open?access resources. Because rare, small?range, and declining?range species are often of particular conservation concern while also posing significant challenges for CCVA, we describe alternative ways to assess them. We also describe how CCVAs can be used to inform IUCN Red List assessments of extinction risk. Finally, we suggest future directions in this field and propose areas where research efforts may be particularly valuable.

Both scientists and decision makers have become increasingly aware of the need to understand the complexity of natural systems when considering actions that affect individual aspects of resources and the environment. The interconnectedness of the physical and biological elements of a natural system is often appreciated in the abstract, but sometimes not as much as it should be in scientific studies. Too frequently, how the interaction of all elements of a system influence the organism, habitat, or process being focused on is given only lip service or general observations. Although not intended to be an integrated study, this report on oceanographic, geological, biological, and environmental aspects of the Gulf of the Farall ones is an excellent example of a study describing the many facets of a complex marine system.

The breathtakingly beautiful coral reefs of the world cover less than a half of one percent of our planet's sea floor. And yet, these magnificent underwater empires are home to an estimated 25 percent of all oceanic species, a dazzling diversity of sea creatures. Like the teeming metropolis of Rome, a coral reef "was not built in a day."Rather, the coral heads in a reef grow at a painstakingly slow average rate of half an inch per year and require epochs of geological time to amass into reefs and coral cays.Coral reefs, in addition to providing food and shelter for countless varieties of marine life, provide benefits beyond estimation for humankind. Healthy reefs aree ssential for an adequate supply of seafood to nourish the world's populations and sustain regional fishing industries. Reefs enhance tourist businesses by attracting millions of divers and by continuously supplying coastal beaches with shimmering white sand, the fine-grained rubble of dead corals and calcareous reef algae. By breaking waves, reefs protect nearby shorelines from soil and sand erosion and from the brunt of ravaging hurricanes. A wealth of commercial and medical applications has been discovered for corals and other components of the reef community. From coral reefs come additives for cement and mortar, compounds used in violin varnishes, substances for surgically replacing broken human bones, and promising treatments for infections,viruses, arthritis, asthma, and cancer. Scientists agree that this is only the tip of the iceberg as far as important findings and innovations which will result from continued research of coral reefs.